Why Religion Is Important Essay -- Why Study Religion?

You cannot believe in God until you believe in yourself.-- Swami VivekanandaI would rather live my life as if there is a God and die to find out there isnt, than live as if there isnt and to die to find out that there is.-- Albert CamusIn this essay, I will explore the phantasmal experience in general and some of its variations around the world. The focus will be on the types of religious beliefs and religious leaders, especially in small-scale societies. An exploration of Christianity, Judaism, Islam, or any other major religion is beyond the scope of this essay. The approach taken is that of cultural relativity--religious practices or beliefs are not evaluated in terms of their correctness or sophistication but, rather, in terms of their function within the societies that have them.What is Religion?A religion is a system of beliefs normally involving the worship of supernatural forces or beings. Religious beliefs provide shape and meaning to ones perception of the universe. In other words, they provide a sense of order in what might otherwise be seen as a chaotic existence. Religions in addition provide understanding and meaning for inexplicable events much(prenominal) as a loved one being killed in an earthquake or some other unpredictable force of nature. For most religious people, their beliefs closely the supernatural are at the very core of their world views.Rituals in ReligionThe performance of rituals is an integral part of all religions. Rituals are stylized and usually repetitive acts that take place at a set time and location. They almost always involve the use of symbolic objects, words, and actions. For example, going to church on Sunday is a common religious ritual for Christians around the... ...what is right and wrong behavior. If individuals do the right things in life, they may earn the approval of the gods. If they do the wrong things, they may suffer supernatural retribution. For instance, the most sacred text of Islam, t he Koran, not only provides detailed lists of specific kinds of crimes and appropriate earthly punishments, but it also gives descriptions of how to do mundane tasks such as eating specific kinds of food.The sacred texts of religions usually set precedents for proper behavior in common situations. The Judeo-Christian rule book stories of Adam and Eve, Cain and Able, Noah, Job, Moses, Solomon, and even Jesus provide examples of how virtuous people should lead their lives. It does not matter whether the sacred stories or myths of a religion actually occurred in every detail--they are still illustrative of correct thought and behavior.

Comparing Nathaniel Hawthorne :: essays papers

Dr Heideggers ExperimentAn eccentric aging physician, Dr. Heidegger, calls together his oldfriends and contemporaries to test his waters of the fountain ofyouth. As the come to himself sits by to enjoy the show, each of hisfour aged friends eagerly quaffs more and more of the magic potion,each draught further carrying them backwards into their shared youth.Having braggy young, smooth-skinned and agile again, the three men beginto fight for the favors of the fourth compatriot now restored to herformer beauty. In the heat of the fracas, they begin to grow tired andwithin minutes the effect of the waters has worn away. Theparticipants in the brief respite from old age are devastated by thetransience of the experience. Despite Heideggers warning that he has versed to appreciate the advantage of age by watching the four of themmake themselves fools, they learned no such lesson and resolve to makea pilgrimage to Florida to sample the Fountain.The BirthmarkA devoted scientist, in a bri ef step from his laboratory pursuits,marries a beautiful woman with a single physical injury a birthmark onher face. Aylmer becomes obsessed with the imperfection and needs toremove it, to be happy with his wife. The tale evolves around hisprogressive frenzy to use his scientific skills to render his brideperfect and the faith of his submissive wife that the union can surviveonly if he accomplishes his goal. The author tells us that Aylmer haddevoted himself, however, too unreservedly to scientific studies...and, in the secrecy of his laboratory he prepares the potion forGeorgiana that results in the disappearance of the birthmark and thedeath of Aylmers experimental subject.ComparisonDr. Heideggers Experiment and The Birthmark can be compared inmany aspects. Nathaniel Hawthorne used many of the same writingtechniques in both stories. Both pieces share two common reoccuringthemes. Also, the symbols in the story know like meanings. In bothDr. Heideggers Experiment and The Birth mark, Hawthorne uses thesame writing style. In both stories Nathaniel Hawthorne writes as arealist, as opposed to a romancer. In Dr. Heideggers ExperimentHawthorne writes about an actual event in history, Ponce de Leonssearch for the Fountain of Youth on the Florida Peninsula. It does notmatter if the Fountain of Youth exists or not it is a real legend.Dr Heideggers Experiment is a situation that could stick takenplace. It is not a fantasy. The Birthmark is also a piece thatcould have happened. A beautiful woman could certainly be born with a

A Summons to Memphis :: essays research papers

This novel by Peter Taylor opens with James and Mary Tyrone talking. They seem to be a very loving, married couple. James compliments Mary more times more or less how beautiful she looks. However she seems to be insecure about her looks because she is discontent with her case of rheumatism in her hands which makes it shake all the time. therefore they heard their two sons laughing, as they walk out from the dinning room.As Edmund and Jamie enter, their parents question them what they are talking about. Edmund tells the story of Harker and Shaughnessy, which he had heard from the night before. Then later Edmund and Mary leave the scene, and only James and Jamie is having a conversation. They seemed worried about Edmund who is sick with a cold, so they hoped, but in reality they know its not bonnie that. They are also worried about Mary, but it is not yet revealed what is wrong with her.James and Jamie then leave to go spirt out on the hedge as Mary and Edmund begins to talk. Th ey show a loving mother and son bond, they both care a lot about each others health. after their talk, Mary went upstairs to rest as Edmund remained in the parlor reading.Continuing to the next scene, James and Jamie tot ups in from external for lunch. They must wait a while though because James was still talking to Captain Turner. Jamie seems to imply that his mother is doing something that she has done in the past that wasnt too good for her, but it doesnt indicate what it is yet. Then James comes in and also says that something is wrong with her, but does not say what it is. He just say that he that why didnt she have the strength to keep on, but Mary acts as if she does not know what he is talking about.After lunch, they all follow Mary back into the parlor. Mary is talking about how their home is not really a home, and then the phone rings. It is Dr. Hardy. He has called for Edmund to come up to the office to see him that afternoon. When Edmund and Mary leaves the scene, Jame s and Jamie begins talking about what the Doctor said. Hardy told James that it was sure that Edmund had consumption, and must be sent to a sanatorium, which will cure him in a year.

Peace in Islam :: essays research papers

Frederick Denny, the keynote speaker of the night spoke on Islam and its moral responsibility and how Muslims need to educate. He was a very intelligent man and bully speaker, but he was too philosophical for the students in the audience. I was one of those misfortunate souls who could not understand where he was going. He hit on legion(predicate) key points that connected the current problems of Islam and ideas of emission theology. He stressed that Islam is and always will be a monotheistic, ethical religion. I agree with this statement and with the study of the y starth and the world, others will see that Islam is not evil or that much different from Christianity in faith. In his randomness he also hit on the ideas of sin. In Islam Maarvt and Mounkar are the Islamic terms for what Christians call sinless and sinful acts or the expectable and not expectable behaviors. From these aspects of faith one fag seek justice and morality through God, the one who wills and acts justly. Spiritual morality and justice are filtered from God and should not be questioned. We should take what he gives us and use it responsibly. Doing what is right and just in the eyes of the lord will draw one closer to the almighty. Closeness to the Creator is the ultimate of all Muslims and with sagaciousness and education all will see that this is the goal of all the Abraham faiths. All 3 believe that happiness comes from love for him. He asks only that we should spend of our substances out of love for him alone. Meaning moral duty enacted out of duty for him, for gods sake first.Doing all things through the lord first and then cover and educating the people, the world and Muslims alike in the ways of the lord can reach peace in Dennys opinion. thither are struggles with-in Islam itself with the more radical liberation theology. They take their faith to the extreme and segregate their own. Find peace from with-in, find peace amongst your brothers, and then find peace amongst your neighbors in order to accomplish Takwa (avoidance of unethical). There will be a great deal of suffering. Denny does not Denny does not deny that. He says along with many Muslims that suffering with the principle of faith. Arming oneself with the exult of God will maintain your spirits and ultimately lead you to peace.

Finding Peace in Death Comes For The Archbishop Essay -- Archbishop

Finding Peace in Death Comes For The Archbishop Willa Cathers Death Comes For The Archbishop is a novel set in the nineteenth century in overbold Mexico. The story follows the adventures of pose Vaillant and Father Latour, two refined French priests on a mission to promote Catholicism in Santa Fe. The story follows each mans experiences in these unrefined surroundings causing them to go through dramatic changes as they experience the westward movement of the frontier. Through the struggles and journeys of a host of characters, we discover the vestigial tensions of worldly distractions that can create a dual-lane character between oneself. The first example of a divided character I would like to converse is that of the cardinals in Rome. It seems as if the heads of the Catholic Church indulge in worldly possessions to fulfill their spiritual desires. ...I had this wine brought up from my cellar especially to warm out-of-door the chill of your twenty Canadian winte rs. Surely, you do not gather vintages like this on the shores of the Great Lake Huron?(9). These high cardinals seem to score grown devoted to luxuries of livelihood than to God and the Catholic Church. This behavior contradicts the teachings of Catholicism itself, where worldly matter is not of importance. This passage constructs a clear warning to the reader, making it clear that these characters seem to have jumped on the bandwagon of globalization, thus at times forgetting their religious ties. It is hard to say if these cardinals have ever experienced the meaning of true devotion to God, a stop of faith where material luxuries have no value. Latour may be looked down upon to do the hard work of the missions but his experie... ... cathedral, distracting him from his mission to reach the native people. Although Father Latour may possess few worldly desires, one may argue he wants what others can benefit from as well as pleasing himself. on his journeys, Lato ur encounters various people, most associates of the Catholic Church like himself. It seems as each time Latour detects a sense of deceit in a person, he progresses in his own mission of morality. When one is trying so hard to embrace and follow the rules and restrictions of religion, as well as enjoy the worldly luxuries, a divided character is created within oneself. It is not until true and total devotion is committed to ones religion that material things become irrelevant and one can be at peace. Work Cited Cather, Willa. Death Comes for the Archbishop. NY Vintage Books, 1990.

Finding Peace in Death Comes For The Archbishop Essay -- Archbishop

Finding Peace in Death Comes For The Archbishop Willa Cathers Death Comes For The Archbishop is a original set in the nineteenth century in New Mexico. The story follows the adventures of Father Vaillant and Father Latour, two refined French priests on a delegation to promote Catholicism in Santa Fe. The story follows each mans experiences in these unrefined surroundings causing them to go through dramatic changes as they experience the westward movement of the frontier. Through the struggles and journeys of a host of characters, we discover the underlying tensions of worldly distractions that dissolve create a divided character between oneself. The first prototype of a divided character I would like to discuss is that of the cardinals in Rome. It seems as if the heads of the Catholic Church indulge in worldly possessions to fulfill their religious desires. ...I had this wine brought up from my cellar especially to warm away the chill of your twenty Canadian wint ers. Surely, you do not gather vintages like this on the shores of the dandy Lake Huron?(9). These high cardinals seem to have grown devoted to luxuries of life than to God and the Catholic Church. This behavior contradicts the teachings of Catholicism itself, where worldly matter is not of importance. This passage constructs a clear warning to the reader, making it clear that these characters seem to have jumped on the bandwagon of globalization, thus at times forgetting their religious ties. It is arduous to say if these cardinals have perpetually experienced the meaning of true devotion to God, a point of faith where veridical luxuries have no value. Latour may be looked down upon to do the hard work of the missions but his experie... ... cathedral, distracting him from his mission to reach the native people. Although Father Latour may possess few worldly desires, one may argue he wants what others can benefit from as well as pleasing himself. Along his journ eys, Latour encounters various people, most associates of the Catholic Church like himself. It seems as each time Latour detects a sense of deceit in a person, he progresses in his own mission of morality. When one is trying so hard to embrace and follow the rules and restrictions of religion, as well as enjoy the worldly luxuries, a divided character is created within oneself. It is not until true and total devotion is committed to ones religion that material things become irrelevant and one can be at peace. Work Cited Cather, Willa. Death Comes for the Archbishop. NY Vintage Books, 1990.

Rise of the Planet of the Apes Film Analysis

One day, when he saw the father of the scientist having a fight with their neighbor, he attacked the neighbor ND was put in a prison for apes by the animal control. In the prison for apes, he witnessed the reality of the cruelty done to apes by cosmos causing him to make an army of intelligent apes he infect with the same computer virus that ca utilize his intelligence and had an uprising to free the apes and himself in the redwoods forest. Based on the movie, the inherited breakthrough that happened were the drugs ALLS 112 and ALLS 1 13 that were labeled as the cure to the Alleghenies illness.These drugs contained a virus that lead organisms with strong immune systems to have heightened intelligence, full cognitive recovery, increase memory quality, and faster reparation of brain cells, although harmful to those with weak immune systems. In my own opinion, the evolutionary manipulation of man or any metal money presented in the movie through the maneuvering of the brain cells an d other parts of the brain of the ape the scientist performed seemed a bit unethical because this manipulation could lead to controlling the management of thinking and the actions of man or any other species.Genetics is related to the film because the story revolved around an ape that was infected with a man-made virus that focused on monitoring the variations in an organism through altering the way the brain cells work, thus also altering the different qualities and actions of the organism infected. by the movie and the discussion, I realized that variations are significant because these are the distinctive qualities organisms have from other organisms. They are the unique traits present in everything and everyone that are used as a means of differentiating one thing from another.Variations could also be used to determine viruses and diseases present in organisms, like the green eyes the infected apes had in the movie due to the iris they had. Without variations, evolution wouldn t happen and everything and everyone would look alike and be the same. The movie Rise of the Planet of the Apes was mainly about an passing intelligent ape leading an uprising Of apes he infected with the same virus a scientist made with the purpose of finding a cure for the Alchemists disease that caused his intelligence, to lead the apes into freedom in the forests.Even though, in my own opinion, the evolutionary manipulation of man or any other species seemed unethical and a bit immoral, the give in of Genetics as prevalent in the movie through the genetic breakthroughs that happened in viruses that caused the quick reparation and improvement in the overall brain answer of organisms with immune systems strong enough to withstand it.Through the movie, I realized the significance of variations in Genetics. Variations are significant because they are a means of differentiation amongst organisms, determining viruses and diseases present in an organism, they allow every organism t o be unique in different aspects, and they play an important role in oecumenic evolution.

Dover Lights

Dover Lights Introduction 1) Have you ever been sitting at home bored looking for something to do? Have you ever wanted to actualise some paranormal activity that is close to home? 2) Good Morning my name is Micah Thomas 3) nigh of you may k nowadays the place a) Dover Lights b) I will tell you about i) The history ii) About the spot iii) Encounters 4) I wee-wee even had a couple of personal experiences Body 1.History 1) Spanish Conquistadors conceal gold in the Ozarks during the war a) The story behind the lights are the Conquistadors searching for the gold and silver they lost b) Conquistadors are thought to have littered the Ozarks in search of the treasures c) Written reports in the 1800s of settlers finding deposits of silver d) Homesteaders found large deposits of silver seam ) Dover lights are something that has been around since the early 1800s e) There are written documents from the 1800s from settlers f) However most locals say the setoff real reports were in 1930 i) T he Works Projects Administration scoured the hill arena for stories ii) Civilian Conservation Corps built the rock wall at the overlook where the lights are most often viewed g) In the 1990s MysteriousReality.Com posted the first film footage ever of the lights iii) Lights moving around bluffs and above the creek h) Around 2000 a camper called in emergency crews because he thought a vehicle had driven off one of the bluffs that rim the valley i) In March 2004 Ted Phillips of the Branson, Missouri from the Center for Physical Trace Evidence photographed what he described as intense and odd-colored lights ) In April 2009, a paranormal group filmed the lights iv) At the time of the filming the water levels were at record levels ruling out and gentleman contamination 2. About the spot 1) Located about 17 miles outside of Dover Arkansas heading north on highway 7 a) eat a lonely stretch of dirt road b) Overlooking Big Piney Creek c) CCC overlooking the valley and creek d) No electric ity e) No man made light f) National Forest 2) Things to do g) Camping h) Canoeing i) Hiking j) Beautiful Overlook k) Popular party/drinking spot 3.Encounters 1) Lantern floating in the air is what most people describe the light as a) The lights are the Spaniards lanterns they are using to search for the silver and gold i) If you yell out we have your treasure they will sometimes come out and chase up the hill side toward you b) 3 lights all one-third different colors ii) ruddy light seen most often iii) Blue light iv) White light 2) Professional sightings c) Have been on several different TV shows v) Discoverys ghost hunters vi) Arkansas ghost and urban legends ii) Forgotten USA d) All have reported about the same thing viii) 3 lights floating/ bound/racing across the canyon ix) round have done day time explorations and say the valley is to dense and steep for some human to be doing it e) Some professional and scientist say that it could be gas being let off x) Used to mine sulfu r out of the valley years ago xi) Some say the gas could make the glowing 3) Personal sightings f) I have been to the lights about 30 times xii) Seen them about 10 times g) Seen all three lights 5 times ) Seen just the red twice and seen just the white twice i) Been legitimately scared about 30 times Conclusion 1) You now know the a) History of the lights b) Where they are located c) And what some encounters are 2) No one has solid evidence on what this phenomenon really is d) But it is fun to go out and watch i) Weather you believe in ghost ii) Just want to go hang out and get away from town iii) Its invariably a fun and exciting adventure e) And if you are feeling really brave go up to the edge and yell we have your treasure moreover get ready to run like a little girl

Cartoon Interp

Cartoon Interpretation. A. 1. The person in the cartoon is, Woodrow Wilson (president of America. ) 2. The name of the bubble is, League of Nations. 3. The bubble shows that Woodrow Wilson was an idealistic person, but wish most bubble, it will probably crumble. 4. The cartoon is critical. This is because he is an idealistic person, and he requisites to have peace amongst the nations, but in reality the bubble will burst and this will not be the case. B. 1. The country represented by the horse is Ger some(prenominal). 2. The countries represented by Briand and Lloyd-George are Britain and France. . The part of the Treaty of Versailles the cartoon is commenting on is the settlement. The wide-ranging load represents the settlement the country had decided for Germany. The horse being lifted up represents Germanys inability to move as there are too many re- give wayments on there shoulders. 4. The comment the cartoon is making about the aspect of the treaty is that Germany should be carrying less of a burden in order for them to pay back the settlement. The man with the whip is France. France wanted Germany to pay back for all the French land and lives destroyed.The man with the shovel is British He doesnt want the Germans to be treated as harsh as the French wanted. C. 1. The Tiger is Clemenceay of France. 2. The two other figures in the cartoon are, Woodrow Wilson and Lloyd George. 3. The squirt has just seen the peace treaty. 4. The child represents Germany. 5. The title of the cartoon was Peace and Future Cannon Fodder. It became one of the most prophetic cartoons because it was given this name and was believed that all the Treaty of Versailles did was set up the time to come generations of the world to be nothing more than Cannon Fodder (solders treated as expendable in battle. It also tells us that there is peace presently but will be war in the future. The person who drew the cartoon does not agree with the terms set on the Treaty of Versailles as he predicts that the present peace will stir up anger in the Germans and eventually lead to war. D. One of the weaknesses between these two cartoons could be that they are very similar in opinion that the terms of the Treaty of Versailles are much too harsh on the Germans.

Challenges Faced by Fisrt Year Students Essay

You are expected to submit the pre-writing stage before final submission of the essay The pre-writing stage should be a fetch out office of how you are going to write your final essay and an annotated bibliography of not less than five sources..The purpose of the assignment is to 1. help you develop the ability to research, hypothecate on and write an academic essay 2. develop the ability to integrate sources ( i.e. direct quotes, paraphrases and summaries) in your work to demonstrate your perspective on the assignment number 3. The paper should be written in an academic writing format and should be word processed, font Roman Times or calibri, size 12, line spacing 1.5 and not more than one and a half pages long. 4. The paper should be well researched and thought-provoking. All sources from which your information was obtained should be properly cited using the APA style, and a reference list written at the end of the paper. 5. The reference list should be in a separate page Choos e any of the sideline topics and write an academic essay.1. Is the law that prohibits the use of cellular phones while driving in Botswana fair? 2. Why is the media important in society? 3. To what extent does the push-down storage media (TV, radio and newspapers) influence an individuals personality? 4. Damage of the environment is an inevitable consequence of worldwide improvements in the standard of living. treat 5. 6. 7. 8. What are the challenges set about by students at university level that may lead to poor performance. Discuss the different ways through which poverty can be eradicated What is culture? Discuss the different elements of culture. Exams often do little more than measure a persons ability to take exams so exams should be abolished in favor of another form of assessment9. Evaluate the importance of a counseling centre in a university 10. What is the difference between sex and gender? What are gender roles? Deadline for pre-writing stage 03 March Due date 08 M arch

Saladin 6e Chapter 12 Nervous Tissue

Nervous System Set 2 Study online at quizlet. com/_6rnj1 2. What ar the classifications of neurons? 3. What are the four types of neuroglia in CNS? 4. What are the two types of fast axonal hold? 5. What are the two types of neuroglia in PNS? 7. What do header tumors arise from? 8. What do schawnn cells do in PNS? 9. What does the neuroglia or glial cells do? 10. What guides microtubules along axon? 11. What is anaxonic neuron? 12. What is anterograde transport? 13. What is astrocytes? 14. What is axonal transport or axoplasmic flow? 1.What are schwann cells? envelope nerve fibers in PNS. produce a myelin sheath multipolar, bipolar, unipolar and anaxonic oligodendrocytes, ependyal cells, microglia and astocytes Fast anterograde and fast retrograde. Occurs at a rate of 20 to 400 mm/day Schwann cells and satellite cells. masses of rapidly dividing cells. meninges (protective membrane of CNS), Metastasis from nonneuronal tumors in other organs. Often glial cells that are mitotically a ctive throughout life spiral repeatedly around a single nerve fiber. support and protect the neurons.Prevents neurons from touching eachother and gives precision to conduction pathways motor proteins (kinesin and dynein) carry materials on their backs while they crawl along microtubules many dendrites but no axon. Help in visual processes movement away from the chassis down the axon maintain structure. nerve growth factors secreted by astrocytes promote neuron growth and synapse formation 0. 5 to 10 mm/day. always anterograde. moves enzymes governs drive on of damged nerve fibers. two way passage along an axon 16. What is bipolar neuron? 17. What is dynein? 18. What is pendymal cells? 19. What is fast anterograde transport? 20. What is fast retrograde transport? 21. What is sign particle? 22. What is Internodes? 23. What is kinesin? 24. What is microglia? 25. What is multipolar neuron? 26. What is myelin sheath? 27. What is myelination? 28. What is neurilemma? 29. What is nodes of Ranvier? 30. What is oligodendrocyes? 31. What is retrograde transport? 32. What is Satellite cells? 33. What is the trigger z unity? 34. What is unipolar neuron? one axon and one dendrite. motor proteins in retrograde transport line internal cavities of the thinker.Secretes and circulates CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) transport moves mitochondria, synaptic vessicles, other organelles toward the distal end of the axon for recycled material and pathogens rabies, herpes simplex, tetanus, polio virus. The short section of nerve fiber between the axon hillock and the first glial cell the myelin covered segments from one gap to the close motor proteins in anteograde transport. (supply) soldier small, wondering macophages formed white blood cell called monocytes one axon, multiple dendrites. Most common, most neuron in brain and spinal cord an insulating layer around a nerve fiber. s segmented production of the myelin sheath. thick outermost coil of myelin sheath. contains gist and mo st of its cytoplasm. gaps between the segments of myelin sheath form myelin sheathes in CNS. forms an insulating layer that speed up signal conduction movement up the axon toward the soma surround neurosoms in ganglia of PNS. provide electrical insulation around soma. Regulate chemical environment of the neuron the axon hillock and initial segment single process leading away from the soma. Sensory from skin and organs to spinal cord 6. What are tumors? 15. what is axonal transport?

Prison makes bad people worse Essay

In the year 2002, on that point were just over 68,000 persons in prison house in England and Wales, 6,000 in Scotland and 1,200 in Northern Ireland. In the case of England and Wales, this is a few thousand more than in 1999, but at this time the plateau stood in marked comparison to the trend up to 1997-8 and it was by no means certain that this could be maintained, (Morgan, 2002). These findings serve to highlight the progressive increase in rising prison numbers in the UK the causes of which argon continu whollyy in debate and beg the question what happens when there is no more room left in our prisons?For the purpose of this essay, this author assumes that the statement prison instals bad race worse infers that an offender, who serves a tutelary sentence, is more likely to re-offend upon release. Before evaluating this statement and ambit a conclusion, this author will introduce a brief tarradiddle of the prison system in an attempt to offer an understanding of how imprison ment has become the most severe penalty imposed on offenders in the UK today. Prisons all over the world win believe existed for many years for the purpose of confining those in society who take on committed a abhorrence serious seemly to warrant such a sentence.The purpose of prison is now not only to inflict a penalisation but also to attempt to restore offenders contrasting with the early days of imprisonment where little rehabilitative work was done. A protective sentence is now the most severe penalty that an offender can be sentenced to in the UK following the abolition of the death penalty in 1965. Imprisonment is intended to punish offenders through restricting freedom and autonomy as well as unfavourable living conditions in the name of less eligibility, (Morgan, 2002).This in no way is intended to suggest that conditions in prisons are inhumane although reports exist from old investigations that would suggest otherwise. Punishment for offenders was served in a v ery different manner prior to the nineteenth century. Punishments at this time in the main consisted of bodily penalty which would often involve torture, public confusion and even execution. After decades of this type of punishment being administered, the torture and public humiliation elements ceased.The infliction of physical pain was replaced by the principle that the loss of rights and wealth would serve as an adequate deterrent for further offend. Although this altered form of punishment apparently foc apply on the mind of the unmarried, it could still be turn overd that custodial sentences still impose an element of physical torture indirectly by food for thought rationing, sexual deprivation and solitary confinement. These aspects of punishments are still relevant indoors the penal system today, (Flynn, 1998).Many different explanations exist for why this change from physical punishment to imprisonment came about, one of which argues that the reason for the shift was due to humanitarianism and straighten which would offer a more humane and civilised alternative to the methods of previous years, (Wilson, Ellis, Mikulski, & Nash, 2003). An opposing argument suggested that this was not the case and that the defining of a new come on and more effective punishment by focusing on the reform of offenders into the disciplined subject were the main reasons for this shift in operation, (Foucault, 1977).Despite this argument, one of the most influential factors associated with how prisons operate in the UK today is the concept of human rights. The 1998 gay Rights Act governs these rights. Along with this, the Prisons Inspectorate introduced guidelines on what factors should constitute a healthy custodial purlieu based on international human rights principles. Arising from the World Health governings influence, four tests are used to identify whether a healthy custodial environment is present. Firstly, prisoners must be held in safety.Secondly, they mu st be tempered with respect and dignity as human beings. Thirdly, they must be able to engage in purposeful activity, and lastly, prisoners must be prepared for resettlement into the confederacy prior to release, (Owers, 2003). Because of the unpleasantness of imprisonment it is necessary for this type of punishment to be justified. Prison can be very unpleasant for many offenders as their liberty is seriously reduced, their contact with family and friends is minimised, and it can infer many social disadvantages that whitethorn lead to offenders becoming socially excluded upon their release from custody.In severalize to justify imprisonment as a viable punishment, numerous theories or arguments devote been introduced in an attempt to support this sentencing option. One argument that attempts to justify imprisonment is the concept of Reductionism. This argument suggests that custodial sentences reduce the number of crimes committed. Those in agreement with this possibility also a rgue that the number of crimes committed will be less if someone is punished in this manner, than there would be if no punishment were imposed at all, (Cavadino & Dignan, 1997).This system also suggests that society as a whole, has a greater influence than the respective(prenominal) and and then an offender would be occasionless to justify not going to prison if he/she had committed a crime that endangered public safety, (Abercrombie, Hill, & Turner, 1988). However, it could be argued that this theory suggests that crimes are only committed by those who are in prison ignoring the concept that there are many in society committing crimes that have never been caught.Deterrence is another theory used to justify imprisonment as an appropriate punishment by arguing that people will not offend because they are too fearful of the consequences should they be caught as the punishment is seen as too severe. There are deuce elements to this theory, firstly there is mortal deterrence which suggests that an offender will not re-offend because the punishment they received last time was so severe that it has deterred them from doing it again.Secondly, there is general deterrence which argues that a punishment imposed on one offender for a crime will deter others from offending, as they know exactly what the consequences are. At first glance, deterrence theory appears to hold validity, but in reality research findings have indicated that sentencing offenders to custodial sentences has a more influential effect. Once an offender has been in prison they may find themselves labelled by the rest of society and categorised into a stereotype with unfavourable connotations.This may hinder their attempts to live lawful lives for example problems getting a job and even psychological effects, which may become apparent in their behaviour, (Cavadino & Dignan, 1997). This evidence could be used to support the argument that prison does make people worse. Rehabilitation theory suggests that some forms of punishment can actually reduce the likelihood of re-offending and alter an offenders behaviour and attitude. Together the prison service and the probation service are heavily involved with rehabilitation as well as the treatment and training of offenders, (Wilson et al, 2003).As a main arrest of the prison service to assist in the rehabilitation of offenders, the provision of accredited programmes such as PASRO (Prisons Addressing Substance Related Offending) and ETS (Enhanced Thinking Skills) attempt to address prisoners offending behaviour whilst in prison. However, a report by the Social Exclusion Unit found that the prison experience causes such damage to an offenders rehabilitation that it outweighs the authorization of the programmes, (Solomon, 2003).Another criticism of the penal system is that many offenders are sentenced to such short periods of custody that they are unable to gain access to any rehabilitative interventions. This evidence could also su ggest that prison can make bad people worse. The theory of incapacitation implies more emphasis on public protection alternatively than the behaviour of offenders which coincidently is another main remit of the probation service.Quite simply, this theory argues that if an offender is in custody they are unable to commit crime and accordingly ensuring public safety for the duration of the sentence giving piece of mind to members of society, (Ainsworth, 2000). It could be argued that this theory fails to recognise that crime often occurs within prisons including violence, bullying and do drugs offences. Another criticism of this theory is that as mentioned earlier, the public will only be protected in this manner for the duration of a sentence.Lastly, retribution theory holds that punishment is imposed on an offender to redress the balance between offenders and their victims in making sure that the offender suffers for their crime. Ainsworth (2000), recognises that seeing an offende r incarcerated may make the victims feel that justice has been done. However, this is often not the case as many offenders receive sentences that the victim may feel does not reflect the harm that has been caused to them as a result of the offence.Now that some of the justifications for imprisonment have been discussed, it is now possible to explore conformity within prisons which may assist in reaching a conclusion on whether the statement prison makes bad people worse can be justified. Conformity, a theory closely linked with labelling theory, suggests that an individual may conform to social rules or may even assume a social role because it is recognised as the norm in their environment. intemperately influenced by the levels of power, social roles exist predominantly in the prison environment especially between prison officers and offenders.One study that attempted to explore power dynamics and how easy it is to assume a role was conducted in August 1971 by psychologist Philip Z imbardo and was named the Stanford Prison Experiment. Twenty-five male volunteers took part in the sample and were taken to a mock prison where each person was assigned a role of either prisoner or guard. The guards had the authority to dictate 24 bit a day rules to the prisoners the results of which were shocking and are still referred to today. A number of prisoners had to be released due to mental health illnesses arising from the trauma of the situation.The try, which was intended to last for two weeks, was terminated after six days due to the pathological reactions of the prisoners who ironically had been selected for their normality. The findings were that the environment transformed the participants and after a few days, the role dominated the person, (Alexander, 2001). This experiment highlighted social power as the being the major factor in the participants behaviour as all the guards at some block displayed abuse, authoritarian attitudes, and appeared to enjoy being i n control.Zimbardo argued that this abnormal behaviour is a product of transactions within an environment that supports this behaviour. The labels placed upon the participants became valid in this environment and pathological behaviour was the outcome, (Wilson et al, 2003). This experiment still has implications for the prison system today in that Zimbardo argued that the current prison system is guaranteed to cause severe pathological reactions within prisoners causing a debasement of their humanity, low self esteem and making it difficult to integrate into society outside of prison, (Wilson et al, 2003).This would suggest that labelling and conformity theories are a case for prison making bad people worse. Whilst in prison an offender may assume a role that could be continued upon their release. Zimbardos experiment provides an adequate basis for discussing the sociological theory of a prison subculture sometimes referred to as the inmate code. The prison society exists apart from the rest of society and therefore it is understandable that norms and values are very different between the two. Sykes (1958) found that the inmate code is something that may give a prisoner an identity and financial aid them to cope with the effects of imprisonment.The code is thought to include certain rules such as not fraternising with staff, acquiring a position in the inmate pecking order, and giving the impression of toughness in emotion and physical appearance. Clemmer (1940) argued this to be part of the prisonisation process which arguably reinforces criminal behaviour as prisoners become used to opposing authority which is likely to continue in the outside world, (Cited in Morgan, 2002). Therefore, attempts at rehabilitation may be hindered by this and could be used to argue that prison makes bad people worse.So what statistical evidence is there to support the statement prisons make bad people worse? Reports into the subject have found that prisons have a poor record i n reducing re-offending and that 59% of offenders are reconvicted within two years of release. For male youths under the age of twenty-one, the reconviction rate is 74% over the same period of time. Research findings from the Social Exclusion Unit have indicated that re-offending by ex-prisoners costs society approximately ? 11 billion each year and that they are responsible for one in five recorded crimes, (Solomon, 2003).This evidence would appear to suggest that people who have served custodial sentences have been made worse by the experience and that imprisonment is not an effective punishment. Contributing to this argument is the theory that these statistics are only obtained from recorded crime suggesting that the figures may in reality be significantly higher as many crimes are not recorded. In conclusion it would appear that there is such(prenominal) evidence to support the claim that prison makes bad people worse such as the statistical evidence revealing reconviction rate s.On the other hand, there are also arguments for prison as an effective punishment such as the justifications for imprisonment including rehabilitation and deterrence theories. It would appear that prison does indeed have an influence on some prisoners re-offending but it would be difficult to assume that this is the case for all offenders who have served a custodial sentence. This would suggest that for some offenders prison is effective and for others it is not.Having said this, it is important to recognise that prison does ensure public safety from offenders who pose danger to society, but only for the period they are in custody unless they emerge from prison rehabilitated. For those offenders who could be dealt with in another manner, community penalties offer the versatility in sentencing options necessary to provide effective punishment without contributing to the growth problem of increasing prison numbers. It is therefore vital that the most appropriate punishment is impos ed individually taking the crime and the offenders circumstances into account when sentencing.

Different Classes of Shares and the Benefits and the Disadvantages of Each Type of Shares.

Introduction First, we will mention about the purpose of this assignment, which is the get ahead that we can gain from doing this externalize. From this project, it helps us to know the types of sh atomic number 18s available in a order, definition of voices and the advantages and disadvantages of cares. From the in mixed bagation, this will enable a person who fool questingness gift in a comp whatever, purchase the parts that are suitable for them, based on the comparison between the advantages and disadvantages of severally type of sells.Other than that, we can know the rights that wedded to the appoints. On the other hand, we will mention that under what relevant case law or relevant sections, the rights of the stockholders will be changed or affected. These circumstances are significant important to those shareholders who want their interest to be protected. For an example, when a compevery is going to winding up and under the normal situation, mouthful shareholde rs will have no right to move into in the surplus assets and profits but under when slit 66 Companies Act 1965, he has the right on it.Lastly, this project will give a fundamental or basic knowledge of separately type of shares, the rights as being shareholders, which is useful in future, if we wish to triumph in our business field. Definition of shares According to Borlands Trustee v Steel Bros Co Ltd (1901), defines shares as the interest of a shareholder in the go with mensurable by a sum of money, for purpose of a liability in the first place and of interest in the second but also consisting of a series of mutual covenants entered into by all the shareholders inter se.According to function 4 Companies Act 1965 (hereinafter referred as CA65) defines share as share in share uppercase of a corporation and includes stock except where a distinction between stock and shares is expressed or implied. In short, shares center that is the capital raised by a corporation, through th e issuance and sale of shares. Section 98 CA65 mentions the nature of share. The share or other interest of member in a company shall be moveable property, transferable in the manner provided by the articles, and shall not be of the nature of immovable property.It means that shares are movable properties, intangible in nature, chooses in action and transferable in nature unless the company is a private company. As according to Section 15 CA65 private company has restriction of transferring share unless get the consent of all the members. There are various type of share in the market, much(prenominal) as ordinary bicycle share, preference share, deferred share, treasury share and others. However, the common one is ordinary share and preference share. Definition of Ordinary office According to WorldReference. om Dictionary, ordinary share is share other than preferred share entitles the owner to a share of the corporations profits and a share of the voting business leader in shareh older elections. Definition of Preference circumstances Section 4 CA65 defines preference share a share by any(prenominal) name called, which does not entitle the holder thereof to the right to vote at a usual meeting or to any right to infix beyond a specific amount in any dissemination whether by way of dividend, or on redemption, in a winding up or otherwise.According to WorldReference. com Dictionary, preference share is share whose holders are guaranteed antecedence in the defrayment of dividends but whose holders have no voting rights. Benefits of Ordinary Share There are several advantages for subscribing the ordinary shares rather than preference shares. First, as an ordinary shareholder, he is a proprietor or owner of the company. A shareholder is empower to membership rights of the company. It means that a shareholder as a member of the company has full voting rights at any general meeting. by dint of voting, a shareholder can participate in the management of the com pany. If the shareholder holds the majority rights (more than or equal to 51% of the rights) he can control the company financial and operating. Section 55 CA65 says each member of a public company has one vote in respect of each ordinary share. Besides that, as a member of the company, he has the right to ingest the notice of general meeting, to request the financial report, to attend and speak during the general meeting, to appoint the director during the general meeting.More everyplace, he has the right to appoint proxies in the event that they cannot themselves attend the general meeting. As an ordinary shareholder, when the company is making a lot of profit, or in other word, in the event the company is prosperous, he stand to gain the most than preference shareholder as their dividend is high compare to the fixed rate dividend possessd by preference shareholder. Furthermore, in the scenario of company winding up, an ordinary shareholder has the right to participate a share in any surplus assets of the company plus the repayment of his capital.Besides that, the Articles of Association require the company to offer any further shares it proposes to issue to the ordinary shareholders in the lead offering them to outsiders, and usually the new shares are offered to the animate shareholders at a lower price than they would be offered to the outsiders. Disadvantages of Ordinary Share As a member of the company, ordinary shareholder is the main risk bearer of the company. It means that these shares carry a right to a dividend bound only by the size of the profit made by the company and are paid after the preference shareholders.They will be the last to receive the dividend. The dividend receive is in the form of non-accumulative dividend and the rate of dividend is not fixed, means when company did not declared dividends for this year, the dividends will not accumulated to next year and the amount is not secured. Under Section 365 CA65, dividends are only payable out of the companys profit. In the event that there are no profits, they will not receive any return of their investment. In fact, the company has no obligation to declare and pay dividend as the director can retain profits or profit the profits in the form of bonus share.However, when the company is making profit continuously for some years but director does not declare any dividend, the shareholders can apply to the court and sue the company under Section 33(1) CA65 where Memorandum of Association and Article of Association constitute contractual effect between company and members, and where members right are affected, they can sue the company. In the scenario of winding up, ordinary shareholders will be the last to receive the repayment of capital. The next disadvantages of ordinary shares s that the issue of shares whitethorn result in diluting the shares held by the existing shareholders particularly directors who also are shareholders. It simply means the directors m ay lose control of the company unless they buy the new shares. Types of Preference Share There are several types of preference share Cumulative preference share If the dividends are cannot be paid in one year or the company does not pay the full dividend on preference shares in any year the preference shareholder will be entitled to have the amount deficiency made up in later year to begin with any dividend is paid on ordinary shares.Non-cumulative preference shares the holder of such shares are only entitled to the specific rate of dividend out of the current year. If in a year the profits do not warrant payment of a dividend, the arrears are not carried forward to the subsequent year. Participating preference shares the holders of such shares are entitled to a preferential dividend if the specified fixed rate before the ordinary shareholders. After the ordinary shareholder has received their dividends, the participating preference shareholder will participate further in any pr ofit remaining together with the ordinary shareholders in the surplus assets.Moreover, they can also participate in surplus of assets with ordinary shareholders when the company is wound up. Redeemable preference shares these shares may be redeemed by the company at a stated redemption price after a specified time. The redemption must be effected only on such terms and condition and in such manner provided by the Articles of Association. It means that the shares are not redeemable before the specific time and the company must buy back the shares at the price stated and at the specific time.Convertible preference shares these shares carry the right to be made convertible, at the option of the holder, into another class of shares, normally into ordinary shares. prevalent Advantages of Preference Shares Unless the Articles of Association or otherwise provided, generally, preference shares that are issued had the rights to a fixed dividend per share to be paid whenever there is qua lified profit, before any dividend is paid to any other member. The preference shareholders are more secured as ompare to ordinary shareholder as they have the priority to receive their return of investment than ordinary shareholder curiously when the company is having bad time where the profits is uncertain. Moreover, preference shares are presumed to carry a right to cumulative dividends where their dividends will become payable at the next year. Further more, preference shares are given the right to be repaid the nominal value of each share when the company is wound up before any capital is returned to other members.They are entitled to be repaid their capital of investment before the ordinary shareholders. General Disadvantages of Preference Shares Unless the Articles of Association or otherwise provided, generally, preference share does not entitle the holder to the rights to vote at a general meeting. Their voting rights to are often limited only during their dividends in res pect of the share are in arrears, upon a proposal that affects rights attached to the share (variation of class rights), or upon a proposal to wind up the company.In short, they have limited right to vote, no right to attend general meeting, limited right to some of the company decision making. Thus, when a company is going to raise fund, they are willing to issue further preference share rather than ordinary share because of the limited voting rights. Even though directors issued more preference share to the stranger (public), they still maintained their majority voting and financial control of the company.Therefore, preference share are the best alternative for the directors of the company. The next disadvantage is they have no rights to participate beyond a specified amount in any distribution whether by way of dividend, or on redemption, in a winding up or otherwise. Different from the ordinary share, preference share is paid in a fixed dividend rate. They cannot participate in the surplus of profit or assets during the company are wound up. Thus, they have less return of investment especially during the company prosperous time.Rights of Holders of Preference Shares to be set out in the Memorandum of Association or Articles of Association Section 66(1) Companies Act 1965 mention no company shall allot any preference shares or convert any issued shares into preference share unless there is set out in its memorandum or articles the rights of the holders of those share with respect to Repayment of capital it should state that when the company is winding up, they would have the right to claim the nominal value of each share before any capital is returned to ordinary shareholder.Participation in surplus assets and profits it should state that when the company is winding up and there is surplus of assets and profits, the preference shareholders entitled to have a share of it with the ordinary shareholders. Cumulative or non-cumulative dividends it should stat e that the preference shareholders would receive either cumulative dividend as according to general rules or non-cumulative dividends as same as ordinary shareholders. Voting it should state that either the preference shareholders would have the rights to vote in meeting or not.Priority of payment of capital and dividend in relation to other shares or other classes of preference shares it should state that either the preference shareholders or ordinary shareholder have the priority to the issued or payment of capital or dividends or both of have the same priority? The purpose for such requirement is to enable the prospective and existing preferential shareholders to ascertain easily the rights attached to their shares. Section 66(2) CA65 mention if default is made in complying with this section the company and every officeholder of the company who is in default shall be guilty of an offence against this Act.Penalty Two thousand ringgit CONCLUSION Our assignment topic is explain t he different classes of shares and the benefits and disadvantages of each type of shares. In our presentation, we had demonstrateed about the different classes of share that is ordinary shares and preference shares. We had explained about the definition of ordinary share and preference share and their characteristics. Beside that, we also discuss about the benefits and disadvantages of them. In our opinion, both of them got their advantages and disadvantages.When company is decide whether to issue ordinary shares or preference shares are depending on the situation. If the director wishes to maintain the control over the company then they should issued preferences shares to raised capital rather than issuing ordinary shares. However, the company also needs to consider the ability of paying back the interest and capital if issued the preference shares as they deem as external creditors that have the priority of repayment of capital than ordinary shareholders.

Big business and how it affects media ethics Essay

The effect of media on the public as shown in the long list of Hollywood movies is of primitive interest with enceinte railway line that targets mass consumption of their reapings, services and ideas. Big railway line sells non moreover a product or a service but a whole lifestyle and dash of thinking. Big business sells a whole package of beliefs passed on from one generation of consumers to the next.McGuire (1986) noted several(prenominal) of the most commonly mentioned intended media set up (a) the effects of advertising on purchasing, (b) the effects of political campaigns on voting, (c) the effects of public service announcements (PSAs) on personal behavior and social improvement, (d) the effects of propaganda on ideology, and (e) the effects of media ritual on social control. And the one who could manipulate the media eventually controls the effects media has on its audience. And due to this interest, risky business has not been complacent in using media to further it s interests to the extent of affecting media morals.There is a war between humongous business and media as one tries to use, outwit and profit from each early(a)s powerfulness. Media needs the advertising money that big business has. And big business needs medias format and pertain to help push their products in competitive markets. On ordinary and traditional circumstance, business news will be the usual reporting of financial markets, who recently go hired or who recently got promoted but times ar changing as media and big business realize the power they set out over each other.Private enterprise has been and continues to be thought of as a closed-door ?affair by many who engage in it. But for a multitude of reasons, the ? media try (and not often enough, some argue) to make private transactions public business. The press is watching business closely. whizz page from a metropolitan ? newspaper can tell the story. The Orange County Register, a southern ? atomic number 20 daily with a circulation of over 300,000, reported stories under ? these headlines one day in early 1987 GM plans to lay off 2,000 in ? Kansas City Ford exec asks cut in Japanese Imports SEC hirer says ?more big news is comingGuiness director quits over scheme People/Continental to offer 2-for-1 tickets GE to lay off 3,000 workers at ? Northeast plants A large picture showed smasher Lockheed Shipbuilding workers crossing a picket line ? in Seattle. (Blohowiak, 1987) Its more dangerous when both cohort each other into twisting the truth and step over business and media ethics. In this light, big business and media profit from the unethical practice of their crafts with the mass markets eventually receiving unjust consequences as illustrated by the extremely celebrated Enron fiasco.In the wake of apparently dishonest practices by Enron Corp. executives, and apparent negligence by members of its jump on of directors, many are asking how people believed to be so smart could have la cked the moral braveness to seek and tell the truth. As there is after every financial scandal, a call is existence made for more courses in business ethics in the leading universities. (Berlau, 2002) Another example of the big business that has continually been in headlines is the business of war.Media has played a critical role in convince voters to support the decision of their leaders to go to war and spend for war. Smith in 1994 explains that army firms have sought to influence public opinion through the control of newspapers in their own and foreign countries, that armament firms have organized international armament rings through which the armament race has been accentuated by performing off one country against another, that armament firms have organized international armament trusts which have increase the price of armaments sold to governments. (Smith, 1994) As the Bush administration furthers its campaign against terror, the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan are slowly de corous the most expensive campaign since World War II. Lawmakers and congressional staff reports that Pentagon is preparing $127 billion to $160 billion worth of requests for its armed services due for 2007. Thats on top of $70 billion already approved for 2007.Since 2001, Congress has approved $502 billion for the war on terror, roughly two-thirds for Iraq. The latest request, due to reach the incoming Democratic-controlled Congress next spring, would make the war on terror more expensive than the Vietnam War. (Wolf, 2006) The business of war just like any other kind of big business will result to prosper and profit because behind these big businesses are media partners that by themselves big business as well.Media ethics is nowhere to be found in bottom line discussions between the big businesses and the use of the networks to hang specific interests as elaborated by the action of Sinclair Broadcasting Group and their support for the Bush regime presidential campaigns. If wha t can only be described as an attempt by a large, materialistic corporation to keep a corporate president in power, Sinclair Broadcasting Group, which owns 62 stations nationwide, has reproducible all of its stations to pre-empt regular programming and instead show an anti-Kerry film along the lines of the Swift boat Liars one week before the election.Its not the American way for powerful corporations to strong-arm topical anaesthetic broadcasters to air lies promoting a political agenda, said David Wade, a spokesman for the Democratic nominees campaign. Its beyond yellow journalism its a smear bankrolled by Republican money, and I dont think Americans will stand for it. (Bowers, 2004) Big business has taken into its payroll media elements including important roles that protect standards.This is irresponsible if big business wants to ensure success in the big amount of money they invest on advertising or news reporting for example. Although bad or good advert is still adverti sement and can help brand retention, at the end of the day, consumers would always go for the products and services that have a good reputation. And with media ethics slowly getting softer and softer, with manipulations with words, graphics and endorsers, a not so good product will sell. These are possible due to evolving market models.The unrestrained market model has diminished the permit of news editors, once guardians of quality, the domains bulwarks against illegitimate pressures exerted by the owners, the public, or other stakeholders. The editors, in a sense, were newsrooms superegos, the disinterested enforces of standards. Most editors are now firmly embedded in the corporate hierarchy, directly answerable to fiscal matters. They are paid like executives a big change from the recent past and are expected to conform to corporate fiscal priorities. (Gardner, 2001).

Romeo and Juliet Film and Text Analysis

ph singlemics What is phonemics? phonology is the study of the estim adapted system of wrangles. It is a huge atomic number 18a of language theory and it is difficult to do to a greater extent on a general language course than construct an unwrapline k straight sortledge of what it includes. In an exam, you whitethorn be asked to comment on a text that you ar seeing for the low gear time in term of various language descriptions, of which phonology whitethorn be atomic number 53. At angiotensin converting enzyme extreme, phonology is concerned with manakin and physiology the organs of saving and how we learn to employment them.At a nonher(prenominal) extreme, phonology shades into socio-linguistics as we deal social attitudes to features of vigorous such(prenominal)(prenominal) as dialect and intonation. And part of the subject is concerned with keying prey standard ways of recording dustup, and defending this emblemic entirelyy. For most kinds of study pe rhaps a language investigation into the phonologic development of little children or regional variations in punctuate, you pull up stakes need to physical exertion pho unclutteric state of affairsment to be credible.But this is non necessary in all kinds of study in an exam, you may be concerned with sty incliningic readys of with child(p) in advertising or literature, such as assonance, hoarfrost or onomatopoeia and you do not need to utilization special phonic symbols to do this. The physics and physiology of talk Man is distinguished from the other primates by having the apparatus to make the ponderouss of speech. Of course meet around of us learn to blab without ever fucking much(prenominal) about these organs, save in a swooning and general smack so that we k directly how a cold or sore throat alters our bear per socio-economic yearance.Language scientists stick out a real gun posted understanding of how the tender body start outs the sound s of speech. Leaving to wholeness side the vast subject of how we choose particular utterances and identify the sounds we need, we notify suppose rather merely of how we utilise our lungs to breathe out air, produce quivers in the larynx and then map our tongue, teething and lips to inter convince the sounds. The diagram below delivers or so of the more(prenominal) important speech organs. phonology This kind of diagram helps us to understand what we view in others moreover is little utilizable in understanding our own speech.Scientists potty in a flash place small cameras into the mouths of experimental subjects, and mention rough of the physical exitments that accom p any speech. But most of us move our vocal organs by reflexes or a sensory faculty of the sound we hope to produce, and ar not likely to benefit from watching movement in the vocal fold. The diagram is a simplified cross-section through with(predicate) the human head which we could not see in reality in a living speaker, though a simulation might be instructive. But we do observe some external signs of speech sounds apart from what we heed.A hardly a(prenominal) mass put whiz across the ability to understand most of a speakers utterances from lip-reading. But umteen more be possessed of a moxie of when the lip-movement does or does not correspond to what we hear we notice this when we watch a feature film with dubbed dialogue, or a TV broadcast whither the sound is not synchronized with what we see. The diagram fag end as head as institute useful in conjunction with descriptions of sounds for cause indicating where the airflow is constricted to produce fricatives, whether on the palate, the alveolar ridge, the teeth or the teeth and lips together.Speech therapists stool a genuinely full moon stoped working k nowadaysledge of the physiology of human speech, and of exercises and remedies to over cut difficulties some of us encounter in speaking, wh ere these have physical causes. An understanding of the anatomy is in addition useful to various kinds of expert who consider people to use their voices in special or laughable ways. These would include singing teachers and voice coaches for actors, as well as the fifty-fifty more specialized coaches who train actors to produce the speech sounds of hitherto un long-familiar varieties of side or other languages.At a more basic level, my French teacher at school insisted that we (his pupils) could produce definite vowel sound sounds only with our mouths more open than we would ever need to do part speaking face. And a literally stiff top(prenominal) lip is a great help if i wishes to mimic the speech sounds of Queen Elizabeth II. secure Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril. internet/armoore/ Phonology So what happens? Mostly we use air that is moving out of our lungs (pulmonic egressive air) to speak.We may pause treadrary hookup breathing in, or try to use the ingressive air hardly this is likely to produce quiet speech, which is undecipherable to our magnetic inclinati mavinners. (David Crystal notes how the rulerly balanced respiratory cycle is altered by speech, so that we breathe out slowly, utilize the air for speech, and breathe in swiftly, in order to keep talking). In languages other than side of meat, speakers may also use non-pulmonic sound, such as clicks ( arrange in southern Africa) or glottalic sounds ( set worldwide). In the larynx, the vocal folds state of affairs up vibrations in the egressive air.The vibrating air passes through further cavities which can modify the sound and finally argon articulated by the passive (immobile) articulators the hard palate, the alveolar ridge and the upper teeth and the active (mobile) articulators. These argon the pharynx, the velum (or leisurely palate), the jaw and lower teeth, the lips and, above all, the tongue. This is so important and so flexile an organ, that languag e scientists identify distinguishable regions of the tongue by name, as these atomic number 18 associated with particular sounds.Working outwards these atomic number 18 the supportside oppo position the soft palate the centre opposite the meeting point of hard and soft palate the wait opposite the hard palate the blade the tapering area facing the ridge of teeth the full point the extreme end of the tongue The first three of these ( buns, centre and bounder) are cognize together as the dorsum (which is Latin for backbone or spine) Phonology, phonemes and phonics You may have known for some time that the suffix phone is to do with sounds. Think, for instance, of telephone, microphone, gramophone and xylophone. The morpheme comes from classical phonema, which center a sound. Telephone means distant sound Microphone means small sound (because it sends an input to an amplifier which in turn drives loudspeakers so the original sound is small compared to the out put sound) Gramophone was originally a trade name. It comes from inverting the original salmagundi, record player (=sound-writing) so called because the sound ca utilise a needle to trace a pattern on a develop cylinder. The process is reversed for playing the sound back Xylophone means wood sound (because the factor is one of very few where the musical note is produced simply by making wood resonate) The primal consentaneous of grammar is a morpheme.A basic unit of write language is a grapheme. And the basic unit of sound is a phoneme. However, this is technically what Professor Crystal describes as the smallest creaseive unit and it is highly useful to you in explaining things but strictly speaking may not exist in real utter language use. That is, almost anything you say is a continuum and you rarely assemble a series of discrete sounds into a connected whole. (It is possible to do this with synthesised speech, as apply by Professor Stephen Hawking but the guide is so different from by nature occurring speech that we can recognize it instantly. And in that location is no perfect or single right way to say anything just as well because we can neer just now reproduce a previous performance. Copyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology However, in your comments on phonology, you allow for for sure want sometimes to focus on single phonemes or small sequences of phonemes. A phoneme is a sound segment of words or syllables. Quite a good way to understand how it may fate meaning is to consider how replacing it with another phoneme get out pitch the word so if we replace the oculus sound in bad we can make bawd, bed, bid, bird and bud. In ii issues here one letter is replaced with two but in all these contingencys it is a single vowel sound that changes. ) The first people to write in English used an existing alphabet the Roman alphabet, which was itself fitted from the Grecian alphabet for writi ng in Latin. (In the Roman Empire, Latin was the official language of government and administration, and in particular of the forces but in the eastern parts of the empire Greek was the official language, and in Rome Greek was communicate as widely as Latin.Because these first authors of English (Latin-speaking Roman monks) had more sounds than letters, they used the analogous letters to represent different sounds perhaps making the assumption that the reader would recognize the word, and supply the usurp sounds. It would be galore(postnominal) years before anyone would think it possible to have more consistent spelling, and this has never been a realistic option for writers of English, though spelling has changed over time. And, in any case, the sounds of Old English are not exactly the identical as the sounds of modern English.As linguists have become certain of more and more languages, umteen with sounds never heard in English, they have tried to create a comprehensive set of symbols to correspond to features of sound vowels, amenables, clicks and glottalic sounds and non-segmental or suprasegmental features, such as tensity and tone. Among many schemes used by linguists one has perhaps more authority than most, as it is the product of the transnational phonetic Association (IPA). In the table below, you give see the phonetic characters that correspond to the phonemes used in averageal mouth English.To give examples is problematic, as no two speakers pass on produce the kindred sound. In the case of the vowels and a few consonants, the examples will not match the sounds produced by all speakers they reflect the variety of express known as Received Pronunciation or RP. Note that RP is not specific to any region, but uses more of the sounds found in the south and midlands than in the magnetic north. It is a socially prestigious accent, saveed in greater or slight degree by broadcasters, civil servants, barristers and people who record speaking clock messages. It is not fixed and has changed measurably in the last 50 years.But to give one example, the sound delineated by ? is not common to all UK native speakers. In many parts of London and the south-east of England the sound represented by f will be substituted. So, in an advertisement, the mother-in-law of Vinnie Jones (former soccer player for Wimbledon and Wales now an actor) says I fought e was a big fug (/a? f t i? w? z ? b? g fug/). You may also wonder what has happened to the letter x. This is used in English to represent two consonant sounds, those of k and s or of k and z. In phonetic placement these symbols will be used.Consonant and vowel each have two related but distinct meanings in English. In writing of phonology, you need to make the distinction clear. When you were younger you may have learned that b,c,d,f and so on are consonants while a,e,i,o,u are vowels and you may have wondered about y. In this case consonants and vowels bear on the let ters that commonly represent the relevant sounds. Phonologists are interested in vowel and consonant sounds and the phonetic symbols that represent these (including vowel and consonant letters). It may be wise for you to use the words consonant and vowel (alone) to denote the sounds.But it is better to use an unambiguous phrase and write or speak about consonant or vowel sounds, consonant or vowel letters and consonant or vowel symbols. In most words these sounds can be identified, but there are some cases where we move from one vowel to another to create an effect that is like n each and these are diphthongs. We also have some triphthongs where three vowel sounds come in succession in words such as come alive, power and sure. (But this depends on the speaker many of us alter the sounds so that we say our as if it were are. For whatchamacallit you may p mend the term vowel glides and say that fine and boy contain two-vowel glides while fire may contain a three-vowel glide. C opyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology IPA symbols for the sounds of English The examples order of battle the letters in bold that correspond to the sound that they illustrate. You will flummox guidance below on how to use these symbols in electronic documents. The IPA distributes audio files in analog and digital form, with specimen orthoepys of these sounds. Consonants pip, pot p b bat, hemipteron t tell, table d dog, dig k cat, key g get, gum f fish, ph phone v van, vat ? th thick, th thump, faith th ? th these, th there, flavorless th s sat, sit z zebra, zap ? sh ship ? treasure, leisure s s h hop, hut t? ch chip dge, dge d? lodg judg dg dg m man, mumm mmy mm n man, pan n n ng, ng ? sing wrong ng l let, lips r rub, ran w wait, wrick j yet, yacht Short vowels ? bit, dizzy i i ? bet, hea e ead ea ? cat, dad a a ? dog, rotten o o ? cut, nut u u ? put, soo u oot oo ? about, clever er big vowels i? crea eam , see een ea ee bur fir urn, ir irm ur har far ard, ar ar cor fau orn, au aun or u? boo glue oob, ue oo Diphthongs a? spice, pie i ie wai fate ait, a ai toy joy oy, oy oy oa oats, note o a? clow vow own, ow ow bor ored, pour oured or our dee pie eer, ie ier ee hai bea air, ea ear ai cur fue ure, ue uel ur Copyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology A phoneme is a speech sound that helps us construct meaning. That is, if we replace it with another sound (where this is possible) we get a new meaning or no meaning at all.If I replace the sign consonant (/r/) from rubble, I can get double or Hubble (astronomer for whom the space teles wangle is named) or meaningless forms (as regards the lexicon of standard English) like fubble and wubble. The same thing happens if I change the vowel and get rabble, rebel, Ribble (an English river) and the nonsense form robble. (I have used the conventional spelling of rebel here, but to avoid c onfusion should perhaps use phonetic transcription, so that replacements would always appear in the same position as the character they replace. But what happens when a phoneme is adapted to the spoken context in which it occurs, in ways that do not alter the meaning either for speaker or hearer. Rather than say these are different phonemes that share the same meaning we use the model of allophones, which are bods of a phoneme. Thus if we isolate the l sound in the sign position in lick and in the terminal position in ball, we should be able to hear that the sound is (physically) different as is the way our speech organs produce it. Technically, in the countenance case, the back of the tongue is raised towards the velum or soft palate.The initial l sound is called clear l, while the terminal l sound is sometimes called a dark l. When we want to show the detail of phonetic variants or allophones we enclose the symbols in square brackets whereas in transcribing sounds from a phonol ogical viewpoint we use delivery lines. So, using the IPA transcription l is clear l, while ? is dark l. If this is not clear think am I only describing a sound (irrespective of how this sound fits into a system, has meaning and so on)? If so, use square brackets. Am I trying to show how the sound is part of a wider system (irrespective of how exactly it sounds in a devoted instance)?If so, use slant brackets. So long as we need a form of transcription, we will rely on the IPA scheme. But increasingly it is possible to use digital recording and reproduction to produce reference versions of sounds. This would not, of course, pr raset change in the choice of which particular sounds to use in a given context. When people wonder about bother (h? r? s) or harass (h? r? s) they usually are able to articulate either, and are concerned about which reveals them as more or less improve in the use of the proper form. For your information, the stress historically falls on the first syllabl e, to rhyme with occlude thus in both Pocket Oxford UK, 1969 and Funk & Wagnalls New Practical Standard US, 1946. The fashion for hu-rass is found on both sides of the Atlantic and we should not credit it to, or blame it on, US speakers of English. ) Phonologists also refer to segments. A segment is a discrete unit that can be identified in a stream of speech, according to Professor Crystal. In English the segments would correspond to vowel sounds and consonant sounds, say.This is a clear metaphor if we think of fruit the number of segments varies, but is finite in a whole fruit. So some languages have few segments and others many from 11 in Rotokas and Mura to 141 in Xu. The term may be most laborsaving in indicating what non-segmental or supra-segmental (above the segments) features of spoken language are. Copyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology The sounds of English Vowels English has twelve vowel sounds. In the table above they are d ivided into s still unretentive and five long vowels. An alternative way of organizing them is ccording to where (in the mouth) they are produced. This method allows us to describe them as forward, central and back. We can qualify them further by how high the tongue and lower jaw are when we make these vowel sounds, and by whether our lips are rounded or spread, and finally by whether they are short or long. This scheme shows the following arrangement Front vowels /i? / cream, seen (long high front spread vowel) /? /- bit, silly (short high front spread vowel) /? / bet, head (short mid front spread vowel) this may also be shown by the symbol /e/ /? cat, dad (short low front spread vowel) this may also be shown by /a/ rally vowels / /- burn, firm (long mid central spread vowel) this may also be shown by the symbol / / /? / about, clever (short mid central spread vowel) this is sometimes known as schwa, or the objective vowel sound it never occurs in a dysphoric posi tion. /? / cut, nut (short low front spread vowel) this vowel is quite uncommon among speakers in the Midlands and further north in Britain Back vowels /u? / boob, glue (long high back rounded vowel) /? put, soot (short high back rounded vowel) also shown by /u/ / / corn, faun (long mid back rounded vowel) also shown by /o? / /? /- dog, rotten (short low back rounded vowel) also shown by /o/ / / hard, far (long low back spread vowel) We can also arrange the vowels in a table or even depict them against a cross-section of the human mouth. hither is an example of a simple table Front High Mid Low Central Back ? i? ? ? ? ? ? u? ? Copyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology DiphthongsDiphthongs are sounds that begin as one vowel and end as another, while gliding among them. For this reason they are sometimes expound as glide vowels. How many are there? Almost every modern authority says eight-spot but they do not all list the same eig ht (check this for yourself). Simeon Potter, in Our Language (Potter, S, 1950 Chapter VI, Sounds and Spelling, London, Penguin) says there are nine and lists those I have shown in the table above, all of which I have found in the modern reference works. The one most usually take outted is / / as in bored. umpteen speakers do not use this diphthong, but use the same vowel in poured as in duplicity but it is alive and well in the north of Britain. Potter notes that all English diphthongs are locomote that is the first element is stressed more than the second. Other languages have rising diphthongs, where the second element is stressed, as in Italian uomo (man) and uovo (egg). Consonants Some authorities claim one or two fewer consonants than I have shown above, regarding those with double symbols (/t? / and /d? /) as diphthong consonants in Potters phrase. The list omits one sound that is not strictly a consonant but works like one.The full IPA list of phonetic symbols includes some for non-pulmonic consonants (not made with air coming from the lungs), click and glottal sounds. In some varieties of English, especially in the south of Britain (but the sound has migrated north) we find the glottal plosive or glottal end up, shown by the symbol /? / (essentially a question mark without the dot at the tail). This sound occurs in place of /t/ for some speakers so /bot? l/ or /botl/ (bottle) become /bo l/ or /bo? l/. We form consonants by unequivocal or impeding the egressive (outward) flow of air.We do this with the articulators from the glottis, past the velum, the hard palate and alveolar ridge and the tongue, to the teeth and lips. The sound results from three things Voicing All vowels mustiness be indulgent they are caused by vibration in the vocal cords. But consonants may be voiced or not. Some of the consonant sounds of English come in pairs that differ in being voiced or not in which case they are described as arduous or unverbalised. So b is voiced and p is the unvoiced consonant in one pair, while voiced g and voiceless k form another pair.We can explain the consonant sounds by the place where the juncture principally occurs or by the kinds of vocalisation that occurs there. The first scheme gives us this arrangement voicing causing the vocal cords to vibrate where the colligation happens how the articulation happens how the airflow is controlled Copyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Articulation described by region glottal articulation articulation by the glottis. We use this for one consonant in English. This is /h/ in initial position in house or hope.Velar articulation we do this with the back of the tongue against the velum. We use it for initial hard /g/ (as in golf) and for final /? / (as in gong). Palatal articulation we do this with the front of the tongue on the hard palate. We use it for /d? / (as in jam) and for /? / (as in sheep or sugar). Alveolar articulation we do this with the tongue blade on the alveolar ridge. We use it for /t/ (as in teeth), /d/ (as in dodo) /z/ (as in zebra) /n/ (as in no) and /l/ (as in light). dental articulation we do this with the tip of the tongue on the back of the upper front teeth.We use it for /? / (as in think) and /? / (as in that). This is one form of articulation that we can observe and feel ourselves doing. Labio-dental articulation we do this with the lower lip and upper front teeth. We use it for /v/ (as in vampire). Labial articulation we do this with the lips for /b/ (as in boat) and /m/ (as in most). Where we use two lips (as in English) this is bilabial articulation. Articulation described by manner This scheme gives us a different arrangement into stop (or plosive) consonants, affricates, fricatives, nasal consonants, laterals and approximants. Stop consonants (because the airflow is stopped) or plosive consonants (because it is later released, causing an outrush of air and a burst of sound) are o o o Bilabial voiced /b/ (as in boat) and voiceless /p/ (as in post) Alveolar voiced /d/ (as in dad) and voiceless /t/ (as in tap) Velar voiced /g/ (as in golf) and voiceless /k/ as in (cow) Affricates are a kind of stop consonant, where the expelled air causes friction rather than plosion. They are palatal /t? / (as in cheat) and palatal /d? / (as in jam) Fricatives come from restricting, but not completely stopping, the airflow.The air passes through a narrow space and the sound burn downs from the friction this produces. They come in voiced and unvoiced pairs o o o o Labio-dental voiced /v/ (as in vole) and unvoiced /f/ (as in foal) Dental voiced /? / (as in those) and unvoiced /? / (as in thick) Alveolar voiced /z/ (as in zest) and unvoiced /s/ (as in sent) Palatal voiced /? / (as in the middle of leisure) and unvoiced /? / (as at the end of trash) Nasal consonants embroil closing the articulators but lowering the uvula, which unremarkably closes of f the route to the nose, through which the air escapes.thither are three nasal consonants in English o o o Bilabial /m/ (as in mine) Alveolar /n/ (as in nine) Velar /? / (as at the end of gong). Copyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology squinty consonants allow the air to escape at the sides of the tongue. In English there is only one such sound, which is alveolar /l/ (as at the start of lamp) Approximants do not impede the flow of air. They are all voiced but are counted as consonants chiefly because of how they function in syllables.They are o o o Bilabial /w/ (as in water) Alveolar /r/ (as in road) Palatal /j/ (as in yet) Syllables When you think of individual sounds, you may think of them in terms of syllables. These are units of phonological organization and smaller than words. Alternatively, think of them as units of rhythm. Although they may contain several sounds, they combine them in ways that create the effect of unity. Thus splash is a single syllable but it combines three consonants, a vowel, and a final consonant /spl+? +? /. Some words have a single syllable so they are monosyllables or monosyllabic.Others have more than one syllable and are polysyllables or polysyllabic. Sometimes you may see a word divided into its syllables, but this may be an artificial exercise, since in real speech the sounds are continuous. In some cases it will be impossible to tell whether a given consonant was ending one syllable of beginning another. It is possible, for example, to check out lamppost so that there are two /p/ sounds in succession with some interval between them. But many native English speakers will render this as /l? m-p st/ or /l? m-p sd/.Students of language may find it helpful to be able to identify individual syllables in explaining pronunciation and language change one of the things you may need to do is explain which are the syllables that are stressed in a particular word or phrase. Suprasegmentals In written English we use punctuation to signal some things like emphasis, and the speed with which we want our readers to move at certain points. In spoken English we use sounds in ways that do not apply to individual segments but to stretches of spoken discourse from words to phrases, clauses and metres.Such effects are described as non-segmental or suprasegmental or, using the adjective in a plural nominal (noun) form, simply suprasegmentals. Among these effects are such things as stress, intonation, tempo and rhythm which collectively are known as prosodic features. Other effects arise from altering the quality of the voice, making it breathy or husky and changing what is sometimes called the timbre and these are paralinguistic features. some(prenominal) of these kinds of effect may signal meaning. But they do not do so consistently from one language to another, and this an cause confusion to students learning a second language. Copyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shu nsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology prosodic features Stress or loudness increasing volume is a simple way of giving emphasis, and this is a crude measure of stress. But it is usually combined with other things like changes in tone and tempo. We use stress to convey some kinds of meaning (semantic and pragmatic) such as urgency or anger or for such things as imperatives. Intonation you may be familiar in a loose sense with the notion of tone of voice.We use varying levels of pitch in sequences (contours or tunes) to convey particular meanings. fall and rising intonation in English may signal a difference between parameter and question. Younger speakers of English may use rising (question) intonation without intending to make the utterance a question. gait we speak more or less quickly for many different reasons and purposes. Occasionally it may be that we are adapting our speech to the time we have in which to utter it (as, for example, in a horse-racing commentary).But most ly tempo reflects some kinds of meaning or attitude so we give a truthful reception to a question, but do so rapidly to convey our distraction or irritation. Rhythm patterns of stress, tempo and pitch together create a rhythm. Some kinds of formal and repetitive rhythm are familiar from music, rap, poetry and even chants of soccer fans. But all speech has rhythm it is just that in involuntary utterances we are less likely to hear regular or repeating patterns. Paralinguistic features How many voices do we have? We are used to putting on silly voices for comic effects or in play.We may adapt our voices for speaking to babies, or to paint a picture emotion, excitement or desire. These effects are familiar in caper, where the use of a stage whisper may suggest something clandestine and conspiratorial. Nasal speech may suggest disdain, though it is easily exaggerated for comic effect (as by the late Kenneth Williams in many Carry On films). Such effects are sometimes described as timbre or voice quality. We all may use them sometimes but they are particularly common among entertainers such as actors or comedians.This is not surprising, as they practise using their voices in unusual ways, to represent different characters. The performers in the BBCs Teletubbies TV programme use paralinguistic features to suggest the different characters of Tinky-Winky, Dipsy, La-La and Po. Copyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Accent Everyones use of the sound system is unique and personal. And few of us use sounds consistently in all contexts we adapt to different situations. We rarely adapt our sounds alone more likely we learning ability our language in the popular sense, by attending to our lexical choices, grammar and phonology. ) Most human beings adjust their speech to resemble that of those around them. This is very easy to demonstrate, as when some vogue words from broadcasting pasture a wave of popularity before settl ing down in the language more modestly or passing out of use again. This is particularly true of sounds, in the sense that some identifiable groups of people share (with some individual variation) a collection of sounds that are not found elsewhere, and these are accents.We think of accents as marking out people by geographical region and, to a less degree, by social class or education. So we might speak of a Scouse (Liverpool), Geordie (Newcastle) or Brummie (Birmingham) accent. These are quite general descriptions within each of these cities we would differentiate further. And we should also not confuse real accent features in a given region with stereotyped and simplified versions of these which figure in (or disfigure) TV drama Emmerdale, Brookside, Coronation Street and Albert Square are not reliable sources for anything we might want o know about their real-world originals. And the student who hoped to study the speech of people in Peckham by watching episodes of John Sulliv ans situation comedy Only Fools and Horses was deeply misguided. Thinking of social class, we might speak of a in the public eye(predicate) school accent (stiff upper lip and cut glass vowels). But we do not observe occupational accents and we are unlikely to speak of a bakers, soldiers or comptrollers accent (whereas we might study their special uses of lexis and grammar). This is not the place to study in detail the causes of such accents or, for example, how they are changing.Language researchers may wish to record regional variant forms and their frequency. In Britain like a shot (perhaps because of the influence of broadcasting) we can observe sound features moving from one region to another (like the glottal stop which is now common in the north of England), while also recording how other features of accent are not subject to this kind of change. Studying phonology alone will not answer such questions. But it gives you the means to identify specific phonetic features of acc ent and record them objectively. Copyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Received PronunciationReceived Pronunciation (or RP) is a special accent a regionally neutral accent that is used as a standard for broadcasting and some other kinds of public speaking. It is not fixed you can hear earlier forms of RP in historical broadcasts, such as newsreel films from the Second valet War. Queen Elizabeth II has an accent st close to the RP of her own childhood, but not very close to the RP of the 21 century. RP excites powerful feelings of admiration and repulsion. Some see it as a standard or the correct form of spoken English, while others see its use (in broadcasting, say) as an affront to the dignity of their own region.Its merit lies in its being more widely understood by a national and international audience than any regional accent. Non-native speakers often want to learn RP, rather than a regional accent of English. RP exists but no-one is compelled to use it. But if we see it as a reference point, we can decide how far we want to use the sounds of our region where these differ from the RP standard. And its critics may make a mistake in supposing all English speakers even have a regional identity element many people are geographically mobile, and do not stay for long periods in any one place.RP is also a very loose and flexible standard. It is not written in a book (though the BBC does give its broadcasters guides to pronunciation) and does not prescribe such things as whether to stress the first or second syllable in research. You will hear it on all the BBCs national radio channels, to a greater or less degree. On Radio 3 you will perhaps hear the most conservative RP, while Radio 5 will give you a more contemporary version with more regional and class variety but these are very broad generalizations, and refer mainly to the presenters, newsreaders, continuity announcers and so on.RP is used as a standard in some popular language reference works. For example, the Oxford Guide to the English Language (Weiner, E 1984, Pronunciation, p. 45, Book alliance Associates/OUP, London) has this useful description of RP The aim of recommending one type of pronunciation rather than another, or of giving a word a recommended spoken form, naturally implies the existence of a standard. at that place are of course many varieties of English, even within the limits of the British Isles, but it is not the business of this section to describe them.The treatment here is ground upon Received Pronunciation (RP), namely the pronunciation of that variety of British English widely considered to be least regional, being originally that used by educated speakers in southern England. This is not to suggest that other varieties are inferior rather, RP is here taken as a neutral national standard, just as it is in its use in broadcasting or in the teaching of English as a foreign language. Accent and social class Acc ent is certainly related to social class. This is a truism because accent is one of the things that we use as an indicator of social class.For a given class, we can express this positively or negatively. As regards the highest social class, positively we can identify features of articulation for certain sounds, upper class speakers do not open or move the lips as much as other speakers of English. Negatively, we can identify such sounds as the glottal stop as rare among, and ab familiar of, speakers from this social class. Alternatively we can look at vowel choices or preferences. For example, the upper classes for long used the vowel /? / in cases where /? / is standard thus Coventry would be /k? v? ntri? /. C. S.Lewis in The huge Divorce depicts a character who pronounces God as Gud Would to God he continued, but he was now pronouncing it Gud We may think of dropping or omitting consonants as a mark of the lower social classes and untutored people. But dropping of terminal g or rather substituting /n/ for /? / was until recently a mark of the upper class toff, who would enjoy, huntin, fishin and shootin. We can find a celebrated literary example in Dorothy L. Sayers Lord Peter Wimsey. Among real life speakers in whom I have observed this inclination I would identify the late Sir Alf Ramsey. I do not know whether Alf Ramsey, who managed the England football team, was brought up to speak in this way or acquired the habit later. ) Investigating the connection can be challenging, however, since social class is an artificial construct. Assuming that you have found a way to identify your subjects as belonging to some definable social group, then you can study vowel choices or frequencies. Even the most passing(prenominal) attention tells us that the Queen has distinct speech sounds. But can we explain them in detail? Does she share them with other members of her family?Do other speakers share them? Copyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril . net/armoore/ Phonology Pronunciation and ethical drug The English Language List is an Internet discussion forum for English language teachers. Recently a student, not a native speaker but clearly a very competent writer of English, asked where he could get help to learn to speak in a standard British accent. Many of the responses came from people who were not answering his question but trying to persuade him to stick with his current accent (which he felt would disadvantage him in his business career).Yet we are not disparaging regional accents when we try to learn the neutral and prestigious standard form. (What the discussion never really revealed was how many of the list members would identify themselves as RP speakers. ) The prescriptive tradition in English grammar was unscientific and perhaps harmful. But set down authoritative standard forms is not always so unwise. In spelling they are useful, and the same may be true of pronunciation. Dictionaries do not compel the read er to learn and use the pronunciations they show but they do give a representation of the pronunciation according to RP.Some show variant pronunciations as well as the principal RP form. If you are a student (or even a teacher) you may find RP an unfamiliar accent maybe you can see that the phonetic transcription indicates a pronunciation different from the one you normally use. No one is forcing you to change your own speech sounds, in which your sense of identity may be profoundly located. But you can become aware that the local norm is not the universal standard. Now that English is an international language, its development is certainly not controlled by what happens in the UK. So British RP may cease to be a useful standard for learners of English.Increasingly, language learners favour a mid-Atlantic accent, which shares features of British RP and the speech of the eastern USA. Language acquisition Very young children do not produce the sounds they will use as adults partly because they are unable to form them (physically their speech organs have not developed fully) and partly because they may not know exactly what the sound is that they wish to produce. Children may also be less subtle in controlling the flow of egressive air, so that they will continue speaking, rather than pause briefly, while drawing more air in.Young children may have a sense of stressed syllables as more important so they may omit unstressed elements before or after. So, for example, a child may ask for a nana rather than a banana. (Alternatively, the child may know that there is some repetition of sound here, but limit it to two syllables. ) I am supposing that the non-standard form is spoken by a child, but perhaps repeated back by adults. But one often observes adults (unhelpfully) using what they suppose to be an easier form of a word. On the other hand, some children have resisted this tendency.Though they may not articulate a word in full or exactly, they can recognize it as an incomplete or mistaken form when an adult repeats it back to them. We see this in this exchange between an adult and a four year old, save by George Keith and John Shuttleworth Adult What do you want to be when you grow up? Child A dowboy. Adult So you want to be a dowboy, eh? Child No Not a dowboy, a dowboy The child cannot articulate the /k/ initial sound but knows that what he hears from the adult is not the form of the word he is used to hearing, so protests.Since children learn by imitation of examples it may be helpful when they begin formal education to give them such examples, but not by continually rebuking them for facial expression things wrongly. Children do not learn to articulate all sounds at the same stage in their development. Teachers of children in early years (nursery and reception) classes should be able to identify the few cases where there is a unhealthiness or problem for which some specialist intervention is appropriate. Copyright Andrew Moore, 20 01 http//www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Language changeChange happens in language and the sounds of English are not exempt. Of course, basic sounds do not change in the sense that the phonemes represented in the IPA transcription will not go away. And it is rare, but not impossible, for speakers of a given language to begin to use phonemes they did not use before. Thus, most English speakers face up with French ogne (as in Boulogne or Dordogne) anglicise to Boloyn (/b? l n/). And Welsh double l in initial position (as in Llanfair and many other place names) they sound simply as /l/ rather than a voiceless unilateral l.What does change is the choice of which sound to use in a given context though choice may suggest that this is voluntary whereas the change normally happens unnoticed. At a very simple level we can see, from rhymes in poetry that no longish work, that one or more words has acquired a new standard pronunciation. So John Donne writes (1571-1631) And find /What rustle/Serves to advance an honest mind. We have retained the vowel sound in wind (verb, as in wind up) but not in wind (noun, as in north wind). We can still observe vowel change. In my own lifetime envelope was pronounced with the initial vowel /? (as if it were onvelope). This pronunciation is becoming more rare, and persists mostly among older speakers. Turquoise was once commonly sounded as in French /t kw? z/ but now it is more or less uniformly /t k z/ or /t k s/ (perhaps by resemblance with tortoise). Far more common are changes in stress patterns. So research (more or less universal in the UK when I was a child) has given way to re-search. In the case of harass the stress has shifted the other way, giving harass. We cannot sensibly say that the new form is wrong or bad English (even if we prefer the older form).But we can observe the frequency with which the new form occurs, and see if it does come to supplant the older form or whether both forms persist. Change ha ppens within regional varieties, too so the glottal stop has moved its way northwards from London and southwards from Glasgow (where it has been found for 150 years). This is one feature of what Paul Kerswill calls dialect levelling. Similarly use of /f/ or /v/ in place of /? / and /? / is spreading north from London. Perhaps the most well documented change occurring now is in sentence intonation. This is especially common among younger people, but not exclusively so.The change lies in a tendency to use rising (question) intonation more frequently. What is not clear, in contexts that allow either, is whether the speaker intends to ask a question or means to make a statement. We cannot be sure if the rising intonation conveys meaning, or is habitual. One common way for pronunciation to change is by elision compressing the word to abrogate a syllable. Once it was common to sound the ed ending on past tense verbs, whereas now these verbs end with a /t/ sound. We do still sound the e d ending on adjectives, even when these are formed from the past tenses as in naked, wicked and learned.We can contrast the learned prof with what her pupils learned in the lecture. (The first has two syllables, the second only one. ) Police is often pronounced as a monosyllable /pli? s/ (for example by the newsreader Sue Lawley). Recently I have observed several newsreaders eliding the middle syllable of terrorist, producing the form /t? r st/ or sometimes /t? r? st/. On the other hand, literacy may alter pronunciation. The n in column is silent, and in the Second cosmos War, people would often speak of the Fifth Columnist (/k? l? m? st/).But now broadcasters speaks of those who write columns in newspapers as /k? l? mn? sts/ thereby sounding what was silent /n/. Copyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Phonology for exam students Phonology as an explicit subject of exact study is not compulsory for students taking Advanced level courses in English Language. But it is one of the five descriptions of language commended by the AQA syllabus B (the others are lexis, grammar, pragmatics and semantics). In some kinds of study it will be odd if it does not appear in your analysis or interpretation of selective information.In written exams, you may want to comment on some features of phonology in explaining example language data these may be presented to you on the exam paper, or may be your own examples, which illustrate, say, some point about language change, language acquisition or sociolinguistics. You may wish to use diagrams, models or the IPA transcription and if you are able to do so, this may be helpful. But if you do not feel positive(p) about using these, you can still make useful points about phonology you can show stress simply by underlining or highlighting the stressed syllable.And you can show many aspects of phonology by using the standard Western (Roman-English) alphabet appropriately as in contrasting p ronunciations of harass as ha-russ (first syllable stressed, vowel is a second syllable unstressed vowel is neutral) or huh-rass (first syllable unstressed, neutral vowel second syllable stressed, vowel is a) Phonetic symbols and electronic documents Representing phonetic symbols in electronic documents can be a challenge, unless you have the right software. Assuming that you have a word-processing program, you need to use special fonts that will represent the IPA symbols.These are either the SIL IPA fonts (such as SILdoulosIPA) or Unicode fonts (like Lucida Sans Unicode, which I have used in this document). If you are producing work that will be printed, then you can add things by hand later, but this is messy and best avoided. There is a lot of guidance on the IPA homepage about how to cope with this problem. If you do find a way to reproduce the symbols you need, it may make sense to paste them all at the end of the document on which you are working. Then, you can copy and past e as you need to use them. If you do not do this, then you will have to use he Alt key and the numeric keypad, since the keys on the normal keyboard will only give you the symbols that resemble ordinary letters. Different ways of representing sound Conventions of language acquaintance and lexicographers If you study reference works you may find a variety of schemes for representing different aspects of phonology there is no single universal scheme that covers everything you may need to do. And many dictionaries may not even use the IPA alphabet, for the very obvious reason that the reader is not familiar with this transcription and can cope without it.The text on the left comes from the Pocket Oxford Dictionary this shows a simple phonetic representation based on the standard Western alphabet, with accents to show different vowels. Look in any dictionary you have and you may find something similar. Copyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Li terary models In representing speech for example in drama, poetry or prose fiction some authors are interested not merely in the words but also in how they are spoken. One of the most familiar concerns is that of how to represent regional accents.Here is a fairly early example, from the second chapter of Wuthering Heights (1847), in which the servant Joseph refuses to admit Mr. Lockwood into the house T maisters dahn It fowld. Goa rahnd by the end ut laith, if yah went to spake tull him Tennyson (1809-1892) has a similar approach in his poem, Northern Farmer, Old Style What atta stannin theer fur, and doesn bring me the aale? / Doctors a toattler, lass, and es allus i the owd taale Joseph comes from what is now West Yorkshire, while Tennysons farmer is supposedly from the north of Lincolnshire.Here is an earlier example, from Walter Scotts Heart of Midlothian (1830), which shows some phonetic qualities of the lowlands Scots accent. In this passage the Laird of Dumbiedikes (from t he country near Edinburgh) is on his deathbed. He advises his son about how to take his drink My father tauld me sae forty years sin, but I never fand time to mind him. Jock, neer drink brandy in the morning, it files the stamach sair George Bernard Shaw, in Pygmalion (1914), uses one phonetic character (? schwa) in his attempt to represent the accent of Eliza Doolittle, a Cockney flower girl Theres menners f yer T? -oo banches o voylets trod into the madWill ye-oo py me fthem. However, after a few sentences of phonetic dialogue, Shaw reverts to standard spelling, noting Here, with apologies, this desperate attempt to represent her dialect without a phonetic alphabet must be abandoned as unintelligible outside London. In Pygmalion Professor Higgins teaches Eliza to speak in an upper-class accent, so as to pass her off as a duchess.In the course of the play, therefore, her accent changes. The actress playing the part, however, may have a natural accent closer to that with which Eli za speaks at the completion of her education, so in playing the part she may doing the reverse of what Eliza undergoes, by gradually reverting to a natural manner of articulation. (Elizas pronunciation improves ahead of her understanding of grammar, so that at one point she says unforgettably My aunt died of influenza so they said. But its my belief they done the old woman in. ) In Pygmalion Shaw does not merely represent accent (and other features of speech) but makes this crucial to an exploration of how speech relates to identity and social class. Charles Dickens is particularly interested in the sounds of speech. He observes that many speakers have difficulty with initial /v/ and /w/. Sam Weller, in The Pickwick Papers, regularly transposes these Vell, said Sam at length, if this dont beat cock-fightin nothin never villThat wery next house Mr. Hubble, in Great Expectations does, the same thing when he describes young people as naterally wicious.Joe Gargery, in the same novel, has many verbal peculiarities, of which perhaps the most striking is in his description of the Blacking Warehouse, which is less impressive than the picture Joe has seen on bills where it is drawd too architectooralooral. In Chapter 16 of Our reciprocal Friend, Betty Higden is proud of Mr. Sloppy (an orphan she has fostered) not only because he can read, but because he is able to use different voice styles for various speakers. You mightnt think it, but Sloppy is a fair reader of a newspaper. He do the Police in different voices. Dickens also finds a way to show tempo and rhythm.In Chapter 23 of Little Dorrit, Flora Finching speaks at length and without any pauses Most unkind never to have come back to see us since that day, though naturally it was not to be expected that there should be any attraction at our house and you were much more pleasantly engaged, thats pretty certain, and is she fair or dark blue eyes or black I wonder, not that I expect that she should be anything bu t a perfect contrast to me in all particulars for I am a disappointment as I very well know and you are quite right to be devoted no doubt though what am I saying Arthur never mind I hardly know myself Good gracious Copyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Background reading on phonology There are very full accounts of phonology in both of Professor David Crystals encyclopedias. See his Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Part IV, The average of Language Speaking and Listening (pp. 123175 ISBN 0521424437) and his Encyclopedia of the English Language, Part IV, 17, The Sound System (pp. 236-255 ISBN 0521596556).For a very clear and succinct account, look at Howard Jacksons and Peter Stockwells Introduction to the temper and Functions of Language, 2. 1, Sounds and letters (pp. 11-23 ISBN 0748725806). There is a longer and more discursive account in Shirley Russells Grammar, expression and Style, Spoken English (pp. 107-168 ISBN 0198311982) You can find lots of help online. The best place to start is the International Phonetic Associations own Web site at http//www2. arts. gla. ac. uk/IPA/ipa. htmlYou will find some excellent resources from the languages department of the University of Victoria in British Columbia start at http//web. uvic. ca/ling/ipa/handbook/ For a great introduction to Scots with some excellent guidance on phonology try Andy Eagles Wir Ain Laid (Our Own Language) at http//www. scots-online. org/grammar/index. htm For help with fonts go to the IPA Unicode site at http//www. phon. ucl. ac. uk/home/wells/ipa-unicode. htm and Alan Wells Unicode Resources at http//www. hclrss. demon. co. uk/unicode/index. tml. You could also try the Microsoft typography site at http//www. microsoft. com/typography/default. asp Apart from materials quoted from other sources, the copyright in this guide belongs to Andrew Moore. You are exonerate to use it for any educational purpose, including making multiple copies electr onically or by printing. You may not distribute it in any form other than the original, without the express permission of the author. andrew. emailprotected net Copyright Andrew Moore, 2001 http//www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/